Journal of Geography, Environment and Earth Science International

In situ Physicochemical Characterisation of Spring Waters in Crystalline Basement Environments: A Comparative Analysis with Surface Waters and Deep Groundwater in Daloa, Côte d’Ivoire

Kouassi Jean-Michel Kouassi — 2026-08-14

Maintaining the availability of groundwater, in terms of both quantity and quality, is essential to guarantee access to drinking water in many countries around the world, particularly in the bedrock regions of West Africa. In most crystalline bedrock areas of West Africa, due to the poor quality of surface water, people are increasingly turning to groundwater, particularly water from springs. In the municipality of Daloa (central-western Côte d’Ivoire), spring water is increasingly being used by all social groups to meet their drinking water needs. This study aims to understand the interactions between different water resources using physicochemical parameters in order to better guide policies for the management of springs in the localities of Daloa, which are under increasing pressure from the local population. This study is based on the statistical analysis of a dataset collected during a campaign to measure the physicochemical parameters of water in the Tétégbeu River catchment area in Daloa. Data collection was carried out according to a rigorous protocol, with quality control checks performed on each parameter measured. The physicochemical parameters, notably temperature, pH, electrical conductivity and redox potential, were measured in situ using a multi-parameter analyser. The results show that the spring waters generally exhibit physicochemical characteristics intermediate between those of surface water and deep aquifers. However, several parameters, notably temperature, pH, electrical conductivity and redox potential, indicate a closer resemblance to water from deep aquifers extracted via boreholes. This similarity suggests that deep aquifers contribute to the existence of the springs, with a limited but not negligible contribution from watercourses (rivers). Thus, the springs appear to be transitional waters that emerge from shallow aquifers with a contribution from deep aquifers, but which may be locally influenced by inflows from rivers. This dual influence gives the springs a distinctive physicochemical signature, reflecting both the dynamics of underground flow and interactions with the surface environment. These results contribute to a better understanding of the hydrogeological behaviour of spring waters in a crystalline basement context and provide an essential basis for guiding spring management policies, particularly in the face of increasing pressure from human activities.

Physiological and Multivariate Characterization of Chitosan-Indiced Drought Tolerance in Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) Seedlings

Srijan Samanta — 2026-08-19

Early-stage drought stress severely limits seedling establishment in groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.), necessitating effective biostimulant-based approaches to enhance drought tolerance. This study aimed to identify the optimum foliar concentration of chitosan for improving seedling growth and physiological performance under contrasting moisture regimes using integrated multivariate analyses. A factorial completely randomised design with three replications was employed, comprising two moisture regimes (well-watered and water-stressed) and six chitosan concentrations (0, 100, 200, 300, 400, and 500 ppm). Chitosan was applied as a foliar spray at 15 days after sowing, and growth, biomass, relative leaf water content (RLWC), membrane stability index (MSI), and cellular metabolic activity were evaluated after 15 days. Chitosan significantly enhanced all measured traits under both moisture conditions, with responses increasing up to 300 ppm before declining at higher concentrations. The 300 ppm treatment produced the highest shoot length (27.01 cm), root length (19.55 cm), fresh biomass (3.32 g seedling⁻¹), RLWC (84.83%), MSI (83.00%), and cellular metabolic activity (2.14 A₄₈₅ g⁻¹ FW). Pearson's correlation analysis revealed strong positive associations among growth, biomass accumulation, water status, membrane stability, and cellular metabolic activity, while principal component analysis explained 87.2% of the total variation. The Composite Performance Index (CPI), integrated with quadratic regression, predicted optimum chitosan concentrations of approximately 322 ppm under water stress and 300 ppm under well-watered conditions. As both predicted optima closely corresponded to the tested 300 ppm treatment, this concentration was identified as the practical optimum. These findings demonstrate that foliar application of chitosan at 300 ppm effectively enhances seedling vigour and physiological resilience under both drought-stressed and well-watered conditions, providing a scientifically validated dose for future greenhouse and field evaluation.

Stakeholder Utilization of Weather Information from Mazimbu Weather Station in Morogoro Municipality, Tanzania

Idrisa Abuu Lema — 2026-08-25

Weather information is essential for weather-sensitive sectors such as agriculture, education, research, transportation, and environmental management. Despite its importance, evidence on stakeholder utilisation of localised weather information services in Tanzania remains limited. This study assessed stakeholder utilisation of weather information generated by the Mazimbu Weather Station in Morogoro Municipality, Tanzania, to identify primary users, examine utilisation patterns, and evaluate factors influencing weather service use.

A mixed-methods design was employed, using structured questionnaires administered to 60 respondents, key informant interviews with meteorological personnel, a review of the station visitor register, and field observations. Quantitative data were analysed using descriptive statistics and chi-square tests, while qualitative data were analysed thematically.

The findings revealed that university students, university staff, and secondary school students were the primary users of weather information, with most users originating from Morogoro Municipality. Accessibility, convenient location, and quality consultation services were identified as the station's main strengths, while learning, field practical training, and research were the principal reasons for utilisation. However, inadequate meteorological instruments, limited technological capacity, a shortage of technical staff, and conditions in the surrounding environment constrained effective service delivery and broader stakeholder utilisation.

The study concludes that the Mazimbu Weather Station provides valuable localised weather information, particularly for academic and educational purposes. Strengthening meteorological infrastructure, technological capacity, technical staffing, and stakeholder awareness would broaden utilisation beyond academia and support evidence-based decision-making across weather-sensitive sectors.

Climate Variability, Cocoa Production Decline and Livelihood Vulnerability among Smallholder Farmers in Mbam and Kim Division, Centre Region, Cameroon

Ngwang Brain Ngwang — 2026-08-27

Climate variability poses substantial challenges to cocoa-dependent smallholder livelihoods in Mbam and Kim Division, Centre Region of Cameroon. This study examined the effects of climate variability on cocoa production and household livelihoods in Mbam and Kim Division, Centre Region of Cameroon, using data from 1994 to 2024 for the Mbangassina and Yoko Sub-divisions. A mixed-methods design combined a survey of 303 cocoa-farming households, focus group discussions, key informant interviews, field observations, and 31 years of NASA POWER climate data. Over the study period, rainfall declined significantly in both Sub-divisions, while temperature increased by about 1.1 degrees Celsius. These changes disrupted the cocoa production system at every stage: most farmers reported increased black pod disease and mirid attacks, and 82 per cent reported declining cocoa yields, with a typical loss of about half of previous production. The production decline translated directly into household hardship. Most households reported declining cocoa income, most depended on cocoa for more than 60 per cent of their cash income, and more than half experienced food insecurity, while many struggled to meet school costs. All these effects were statistically significant, and none differed meaningfully between the two Sub-divisions, indicating a shared regional climate problem rather than an isolated local occurrence. The findings show that, because these households depend heavily on a single climate-sensitive crop, a shock to cocoa production rapidly affects income, food, schooling, health, and general wellbeing. The study recommends climate-smart cocoa practices, support for genuine income diversification, investment in rural roads, and stronger access to credit and social protection for cocoa-farming households.

Geospatial Engineering Geological Rock Mass Characterization and Classification using Multicriteria Analytical Hierarchy Decision Process (AHP-MCDA) in Ondo State, Southwestern Nigeria

O. O. Falowo — 2026-08-27

This study provides quantitative and qualitative information on the strength/competency of rock masses in Ondo State, southwestern Nigeria, for slope, foundation, and tunnel applications. In addition, parameters influencing the general behaviour/characteristics of the rock masses, as well as the most suitable rock classification system(s), were duly identified. The study employed nine systems (RMR, Q-system, modified Q-system, RMN, RMI, GSI, SMR, RSR, and RQD), which were ranked using the AHP-MCDA method. All the parameters required were obtained through engineering geological mapping and laboratory analysis. The AHP-MCDA generated a strength map that categorised the area into five classes, comprising very weak (8 %), moderately weak (23 %), moderately strong (37 %), strong (18 %), and very strong (14 %), with areal extents of 384 km², 5399 km², 6524 km², 2232 km², and 461 km², respectively. The very strong rock masses usually have lower fracture frequency and are slightly weathered. These rocks are predominantly porphyritic granite, charnockite, granite gneiss, fine-grained granite, biotite granite, and gneisses. Among these rocks, the fine–medium and medium-coarse-grained granite (including aplites, dolerites, and some hypabyssal rocks occurring as dykes) showed the best geomechanical attributes and ranked very high by all the systems. The migmatite/migmatite gneiss, pegmatite, and some porphyritic granite constitute the moderately strong rocks. The quartz schist, mica – quartz schist, and the flaggy quartzite constitute the moderately weak rocks, while Dahomey Basin deposits make up the very weak rock units. Within the adopted AHP framework, the most suitable system is the RMR, with a weight of 31.752 %, followed by the modified Q-system (23.365 %), Q-system (16.769 %), RMN (8.588 %), RMI (6.243 %), RSR (4.815 %), GSI (3.645 %), SMR (2.994 %), and RQD (1.828 %), respectively. Overall, the AHP-MCDA map zonation highlights the importance of composite evaluation rather than relying on a single system of characterisation and classification.

Calibration and Validation of AquaCrop Model for Rice under Prayagraj Agro-Climatic Conditions

M. Daniel Rohith — 2026-08-27

Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is the principal food crop of the Indo-Gangetic plains, and its sustainable production is increasingly constrained by water scarcity and climatic variability. Crop simulation models offer a robust means of evaluating crop response to management practices without the cost and time demands of exhaustive field trials. This study calibrated and validated the FAO AquaCrop model for rice cultivar SARJU-52 grown under three transplanting dates (1, 11 and 21 July) and five irrigation regimes (rainfed, continuous flooding, alternate wetting and drying, irrigation at 3-day intervals, and irrigation at 7-day intervals) at the Field Nursery, College of Forestry, SHUATS, Prayagraj, during the 2019 and 2020 kharif seasons. Field-observed grain yield, above-ground biomass, harvest index and canopy cover (derived from Leaf Area Index using the Beer–Lambert relationship) from 2019 were used to calibrate the model, while the independent 2020 dataset was used for validation. Model performance was assessed using the root mean square error (RMSE), normalised RMSE (NRMSE), coefficient of determination (R²) and mean absolute error (MAE).

The calibrated model reproduced observed grain yield with R² values of 0.97 (sowing windows) and 0.94 (irrigation schedules) during calibration, and R² values of 0.92 and 0.93, respectively, during validation, with correspondingly low RMSE and NRMSE. Biomass simulations showed R² values of 0.88 or above in both phases, while canopy cover at 60 and 90 days after sowing was reproduced with NRMSE values generally below 5%. Among treatments, early transplanting (1 July) and moderate, well-timed irrigation (alternate wetting and drying and 7-day interval irrigation) produced the highest observed and simulated yields, whereas rainfed conditions and delayed transplanting reduced productivity. These results confirm that AquaCrop, after site-specific calibration, is a dependable decision-support tool for simulating rice growth, yield and water-use responses under the agro-climatic conditions of Prayagraj and provides a validated basis for subsequent irrigation-scheduling and climate-impact studies.

Food Security in Transition: A Subdivision-Level Study of Jangalmahal Using Multivariate Techniques

Nasim Aktar — 2026-09-01

Background: Food security in Jangalmahal is characterised by substantial spatial disparities arising from differences in agricultural productivity, irrigation coverage, access to agricultural inputs, infrastructure, employment opportunities, and socio-economic conditions. Although the region is predominantly dependent on agriculture, subdivision-level variations in these factors may result in unequal food-security outcomes. A multidimensional assessment is therefore required to identify the spatial pattern of food security and the principal factors associated with these disparities.

Aims: To examine the level of food security in the Jangalmahal region and analyse the correlation between the food security index and the different variables affecting food security in the region.

Study Design: This study uses a Composite Z-score technique to examine food security at the subdivision level, considering a number of indicators affecting the region. Principal Component Analysis was subsequently used to highlight the most important variables.

Place of Study: The study was conducted in the Jangalmahal region, which includes Purulia, Bankura, Jhargram, and Paschim Medinipur. This region faces multiple socio-economic, infrastructural, and environmental constraints.

Methodology: The study analyses the correlation matrix to identify relationships between key indicators, such as calorie availability, agricultural productivity, infrastructure, and socio-economic factors. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was applied to reduce dimensionality and identify the most important variables.

Results: About 30% of the subdivisions, namely Purulia Sadar (West), Purulia Sadar (East), and Raghunathpur, lying in the north-western part of the region, belong to the category of extreme food insecurity. Principal Component Analysis (PCA), which extracted four significant components explaining 67.04% of the total variance (KMO = 0.785; p < 0.001), was employed to reduce dimensionality and highlight the most important variables influencing food security. The results reveal substantial spatial disparities: southeastern subdivisions, such as Ghatal and Kharagpur, exhibit higher food security due to better irrigation coverage, greater access to agricultural inputs, higher road density, and higher employment rates. Conversely, central and western subdivisions, such as Bankura Sadar and Khatra, fall into medium or low food security categories due to limited irrigation facilities and reliance on rainfall.

Conclusion: This study emphasises the need for targeted interventions in irrigation expansion, infrastructure development, and socio-economic improvements to address food insecurity in this region effectively. Improving irrigation facilities, fertiliser availability, seed distribution, farmers’ literacy rates, and access to drinking water would contribute to enhanced food security.

Ecological Assessment of Riparian Vegetation Diversity and Phytosociological Structure Along the Arpa River, Central India

Alok Singh Bargah — 2026-09-10

The present study assessed the floristic composition, phytosociological structure, diversity and conservation status of riparian vegetation along the Arpa River in Bilaspur district, Chhattisgarh, India during 2024–25 and 2025–26. The study was conducted along the selected river stretch from Seepat Chowk, Bilaspur, to Arpa Bridge, Belgahna, covering a total research area of approximately 62 km. The river stretch was classified into three disturbance zones based on anthropogenic pressure: Zone I, Highly Disturbed Urban Area; Zone II, Moderately Disturbed Semi-urban/Rural Area; and Zone III, Least Disturbed Forest/Remote Area. Vegetation sampling was conducted using simple random sampling, with ten 10 m × 10 m quadrats established in each zone, giving a total of 30 quadrats and a sampled area of 3000 m². A total of 46 plant species, comprising 32 tree species, 9 shrub species, and 5 herbaceous species, were recorded from the sampled riparian vegetation. The recorded flora represented 25 families based on the complete species inventory. Fabaceae was the most species-rich family, contributing 10 species, whereas Asteraceae contributed the highest number of individuals. The phytosociological assessment revealed considerable variation in frequency, density, basal area and Importance Value Index among species. Parthenium incanum recorded the highest IVI (14.96), followed by Parthenium hysterophorus (14.30), Ruellia tuberosa/Ruellia spp. (11.84), Ipomoea carnea (11.52) and Solanum nigrum (10.61), while Terminalia tomentosa recorded the highest IVI among the tree species (10.21) in the principal phytosociological dataset. All were significant at p < 0.05. The results reveal a species-rich but invasion-prone riparian corridor whose structural integrity depends strongly on the near-channel zone, providing a quantitative baseline for riparian management, invasive species control and biodiversity conservation in Central Indian river systems.

Long-term Analysis of Rainfall Variability and Drought Characteristics for Climate-resilient Agricultural Planning in Ballari District, Karnataka, India

Umarfarooque Momin — 2026-09-11

Rainfall variability and drought occurrence are major challenges affecting agricultural productivity and water resource management in the semi-arid regions of India. The present study was undertaken to analyse long-term rainfall variability, rainfall anomalies, drought characteristics and rainfall trends in Ballari district of Karnataka and to assess their implications for agricultural sustainability. Daily rainfall data from the Climate Hazards Group InfraRed Precipitation with Station data (CHIRPS) dataset for the period 1981–2025 were used for the analysis. Annual rainfall variability was evaluated using descriptive statistical measures, while rainfall anomalies were assessed using the Rainfall Anomaly Index (RAI). Drought characteristics were examined using the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI-12), and long-term rainfall trends were analysed using the Mann–Kendall test and Sen’s slope estimator. The results indicated that the long-term mean annual rainfall of Ballari district was 511.25 mm, with substantial interannual variability. The coefficient of variation was 24.07%, reflecting considerable year-to-year fluctuations in rainfall. Rainfall classification revealed that, out of 45 years analysed, 12 years were classified as deficit rainfall years, 21 years as normal rainfall years, and 12 years as excess rainfall years. RAI analysis demonstrated the recurrent occurrence of both wet and dry anomalies, highlighting the highly variable nature of rainfall in the district. SPI analysis further indicated the occurrence of recurring drought conditions, with several years experiencing moderate to severe moisture deficits. Trend analysis using the Mann–Kendall test and Sen’s slope estimator showed no statistically significant long-term trend in annual rainfall, suggesting that climatic risks in the district are primarily associated with rainfall variability and extreme events rather than systematic changes in mean rainfall. The study concludes that agriculture in Ballari district remains highly vulnerable to rainfall variability, drought recurrence and extreme rainfall events. Strengthening climate-resilient agricultural practices, improving soil and water conservation measures, promoting rainwater harvesting and enhancing weather-based agro-advisory services are essential for improving agricultural sustainability and resilience under changing climatic conditions.